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International Space Station

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International Space Station

Can you imagine living on the International Space Station for half a year?

  • The International Space Station, also known as the ‘ISS’, is a space station that takes approximately 90 minutes to orbit the Earth; has been used or visited by individuals from 15 nations; and is continuously manned by astronauts.
  • The primary use of the International Space Station is for scientific research and tests, mainly for spatial, biological, astronomical, gravitational, physical and meteorological purposes.
  • In 2015, the International Space Station was only able to be accessed through the Russian rocket Soyuz, although American rockets had also been used up until 2011.
  • The International Space Station is roughly 72.8 metres (239 feet) in length and 108.5 metres (356 feet) in width, with an approximate height of 20 metres (66 feet).
  • In 1998, the first part of the International Space Station was placed in space, and in excess of 40 missions over the years, have enabled different modules to be added to the structure, though the station may retire between 2020 and 2024.
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The International Space Station
Image courtesy of NASA/Wikimedia Commons
  • The International Space Station is powered through solar electricity, although there is a rough 35 minute lapse that occurs when the sun is hidden from view, thus causing the station to depend on rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries during this period.
  • Typically, up to six people are sent to the International Space Station on a single expedition, although it has the capacity to house seven, and they generally live at the station for half a year at a time.
  • Days at the International Space Station generally begin at 6 am and end at 9.30 pm, and the astronauts, who encounter 16 sunsets and sunrises per earth day, are required to exercise to prevent body dysfunction, and to particularly keep bones and muscles in good condition.
  • The cost of building the International Space Station was around US$100 billion, and the ongoing expenses associated with the station are generally covered by the participating countries.
  • The International Space Station appears as a white dot in the sky when viewed from the Earth, and is detectable due to sunlight reflecting from the station.
Bibliography:
International Space Station, 2015, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station
International Space Station, n.d, ESA, http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/International_Space_Station/Building_the_International_Space_Station3
Sharp T, International Space Station: Facts, History & Tracking, 2015, Space.com, http://www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html

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Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

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Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was once a monument of beauty, but is now the building blocks of construction.

  • The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was a tomb located in modern day Bodrum in south-west Turkey, in western Asia, which was built on a hill overlooking Halicarnassus, and made of marble and other stone.
  • The ‘Mausoleum at Halicarnassus’ is also known as the ‘Tomb of Mausolus’, and the term ‘mausoleum’ that is used today in reference to grand burial sites was derived from the Greek word ‘Mausoleion’, the name that was applied to this particular site.
  • The Persian ruler Artemisia II of Caria is believed to have had the Mausoleum built at Halicarnassus for the remains of her husband and brother, Mausolus, and her own remains were also entombed there.
  • The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was built around 353 BC, the year Mausolus died, by the Greek architects Satyros and Pytheos, and sculptors Timotheus, Bryaxis, Leochares and Scopas, all contributed to the design.
  • The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was famous for its aspiring beauty of architecture, decorative aspects and sculptures, including life-size (or larger) statues of lions, chariots, horses and human figures.

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Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
Image courtesy of Carole Radato/Flickr
  • The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus has been listed under the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and it was the second longest surviving construction on the list, after the Pyramid of Giza.
  • The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus reached a height of around 45 metres (148 feet) and the rectangular shaped building had dimensions of roughly 30 by 40 metres (98 by 131 feet), and included 36 pillars, while the structure was topped with a pyramid-like roof.
  • Between the mid 1100s and the late 1400s it is thought that the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was devastated by a number of earthquakes.
  • Crusaders destroyed much of the visible remains of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in the late 1400s and early 1500s, using much of the stone and debris to extend or fortify the Bodrum castle, some of which can be seen today in the structure.
  • The ruins of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus were discovered by Charles Thomas Newton, a British archaeologist, in the mid 1800s, under the direction of the British Museum, after he successfully used deduction and logic to correctly choose and determine the site location; while art pieces buried by the earthquakes are now displayed in the British Museum.
Bibliography:
The Mausoleum at Haliciarnassus, 2000, Bodrum Pages, http://www.bodrumpages.com/English/mausoleum.html
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 2011, The Museum of UnNatural History, http://www.unmuseum.org/maus.htm
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 2015, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, n.d, Social Studies for Kids, http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/worldhistory/mausoleum.htm

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Angel of the North

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Angel of the North

The guardian of the north is the Angel of the North.

  • The Angel of the North is a modern-styled statue depicting an angel with spread wings, found in the area of England’s Gateshead, in Europe.
  • Known as the largest angel statue in the world, the Angel of the North reaches 20 metres (65 feet) in height and has wings that spread over a distance of 54 metres (177 feet) in length.
  • The wings of the Angel of the North, also called ‘Gateshead Flasher‘, feature a 3.5° forward tilt, chosen to display a feeling of embrace.
  • British sculptor Sir Antony Gormley designed the Angel of the North under commission by the Gateshead Council in 1994, and it was completed in early 1998.
  • The Angel of the North was designed to mark a coal mine located below the site; to symbolise movement into an information age; and act as a pivotal point for hopes and fears.
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The Angel of the North
Image courtesy of Auntie P/Flickr
  • The Angel of the North has been engineered to withstand gales of around 160 kilometres per hour (100 miles per hour), and it was carefully engineered by Ove Arup & Partners.
  • Weather resistant brown steel, known as corten steel, that contains a small amount of copper, was used as the main material to enhance the Angel of the North‘s durability in outside weather, and the sculpture was built in four parts – the two wings and body which were manufactured off-site, plus the concrete foundations created on-site.
  • The wings and body of the Angel of the North combined, weigh 200 tonnes (220.5 tons), while the foundation weighs 600 tonnes (661.5 tons) and reaches at least 20 metres (66 feet) underground.
  • The final Angel of the North statue had a total cost of 800,000 pounds (roughly 1.24 million USD), while smaller scaled models have been sold for as much as 1 and 2 million pounds.
  • The viewing rate of the Angel of the North averages around 90,000 people each day due to vehicles passing by in the area, which equates to over a person a second, while the approximate number of visitors to the sculpture in a year is 150,000 people.
Bibliography:
Angel of the North, 2015, Gateshead Council, http://www.gateshead.gov.uk/Leisure%20and%20Culture/attractions/Angel/Home.aspx
Angel of the North, 2015, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angel_of_the_North

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Spirit Level

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Spirit Level

Did you go for the laser level? Well, spirit levels will be with you in spirit.

  • Spirit levels are an invention typically used to determine if either a vertical or horizontal platform is exactly aligned.
  • ‘Spirit levels’ are also known as ‘bubble levels’, ‘levels’ and ‘spirits’, and they are commonly used in the construction industry.
  • Spirit levels are typically made of a tube and a holder, and the tube is generally made of glass or plastic, while the holder is commonly made of plastic, wood, aluminium or other metal.
  • Typically, the tube containing the liquid in a spirit level is cylindrical, rectangular or crescent-shaped, and is marked with a central point and/or into sections, and the tube is deliberately filled with a small air space which creates a bubble.
  • When the bubble inside a spirit level sits centrally, rather than off-centre, the platform or object sitting parallel to the spirit will be level, or if it is sitting perpendicular to the spirit, it will be aligned vertically.
Spirit Level
Spirit Level
Image courtesy of David Jones/Flickr
  • The coloured liquid used in spirit levels is generally alcoholic, hence the level’s name, which is commonly ethanol dyed green or yellow; and alcohol is used instead of water as the latter freezes more easily and provides more friction, preventing smooth bubble movement.
  • To establish the accuracy of a spirit level, the bubble should have an increment from the centre, equal to when the level is rotated 180° on the same surface.
  • The spirit level is said to have been invented in the mid 1600s by the wealthy Frenchman Melchisedech Thevenot, who had studied science duruing his life; however they did not become popular until the 1700s.
  • Spirit levels are said to have replaced water bottles that were used for similar purposes, and these levels are being slowly replaced by laser-based levels that are generally more accurate and can measure in three dimensions.
  • The accuracy of a spirit level depends on the liquid container’s shape, the bubble size and liquid type, as these all contribute to a level’s sensitivity.
Bibliography:
Spirit Level, 2015, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_level
Spirit Level, 2015, WiseGEEK, http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-spirit-level.htm#
Spirit Level Information, 2015, Johnson, http://www.johnsonlevel.com/News/SpiritLevelInformation

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Hagia Sophia

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Hagia Sophia

Nothing can tear down Hagia Sophia.

  • Hagia Sophia is a building located in Turkey’s city of Istanbul, in Europe, initially built as an Eastern Orthodox church, and the UNESCO World Heritage Convention included it as part of the ‘Historic Areas of Istanbul’ World Heritage Site in 1985.
  • ‘Hagia Sophia’ translates as ‘holy wisdom’, and it is also known as the ‘Church of the Holy Wisdom’ in English, as well as ‘Sancta Sophia’ in Latin and ‘Ayasofya’ in Turkish.
  • Two churches were previously constructed on the site of Hagia Sophia, in 360 and later in 415, however both were destroyed by arson due to riots.
  • The third and existing Hagia Sophia building was built from early 532 until late 537, under orders of Emperor Justinian I, and in excess of ten thousand people are said to have contributed their work to the construction of the church.
  • Hagia Sophia is made primarily of stone and brick, with marble low relief work and pillars common throughout the building.
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Hagia Sophia
Image courtesy of Dennis Jarvis/Flickr
  • A dome tops the construction of Hagia Sophia, which spans 31 metres (102 feet) in diameter, and the dome has been reconstructed or renovated on a number of occasions, which has caused its originally spherical shape to be a little skewed.
  • A number of disasters have been inflicted onto Hagia Sophia, particularly during its earlier years, from earthquakes to fires, though the current building has survived over 1400 years.
  • Hagia Sophia was used as an imperial mosque from 1453, and in 1935 it was turned into a museum after orders by the then Turkish President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
  • The paintings, mosaics, and other artwork in Hagia Sophia have become increasingly jeopardised by water from leaks, as well as increased humidity.
  • Hagia Sophia reaches a total height of 55 metres (180 feet) and has the base dimensions of 73 by 82 metres (240 by 270 feet).
Bibliography:
Hagia Sophia, 2015, Encyclopaedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia
Hagia Sophia, 2015, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 2015, Sacred Destinations, http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/istanbul-hagia-sophia

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Potala Palace

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Potala Palace

Potala Palace is quite high up.

  • Potala Palace is a historic Buddhist building located on Red Mountain, Red Hill, or Marpo Ri as it is known, in Tibet’s Lhasa, in Asia.
  • The construction of the Potala Palace began in 1645, taking three years to build the outside structure, and it was completed in the 1690s.
  • Potala Palace was created due to the recommendation of the adviser of the Head of State and fifth Dalai Lama, Lozang Gyatso, and it was suggested that the location would be advantageous for political reasons.
  •  A smaller palace originated on the site of Potala Palace, which was built in the 600s, while sections of the older building are still evident in some parts.
  • The UNESCO World Heritage Convention designated Potala Palace a World Heritage Site in 1994, which was expanded to include other surrounding historical buildings in 2000 and 2001.
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Potala Palace
Image courtesy of Will De Freitas/Flickr
  • Since 2003, numbers of tourists that can enter Potala Palace each day have been limited, so as to reduce damage to the building, however it remains a popular tourist attraction.
  • Potala Palace is split into two differently purposed buildings, or palaces, as they are called – one for general living and one for religious purposes, marked via white and red colours respectively, and known as Potrang Karpo (White Palace) and Potrang Marpo (Red Palace).
  • Potala Palace extends to an area of more than 130,000 square metres (1.4 million square feet) and is 110 metres (161 feet) in height.
  • To prevent destruction caused by earthquakes, the base of Potala Palace is said to have been reinforced with copper during the original construction.
  • The palace, officially ‘Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace’, has been known as ‘Bùdálā Gōng’ in Pinyin, and the name ‘Potala’ is a reference to a sacred mountain in India.
Bibliography:
Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace, Lhasa, 2015, UNESCO World Heritage Convention, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/707
Potala Palace, 2015, Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potala_Palace

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