Hammer

Hammer

Hear those hammers striking iron early in the morning.

  • Hammers are tools used primarily to imply a sharp force on to an object, often to force an item into another.
  • Hammers are often used to secure nails, shape metal or apply components, as well as crush and destroy objects.
  • Hammers have been used since the Stone Ages, and were made of rock, used for carving and breaking items including stone, wood and bone.
  • Hammers most often require a human force to become useful, although mechanical and electrical versions are available.
  • Hammers generally are made of a handle and a head, and the head is often shaped and has a flat sided knob that often impacts the item, and sometimes a claw on the opposite end.

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  • The head of hammers are generally made of metal, often steel, due to having a suitable mass, although they can be wooden, and these have a softer impact which helps to prevent damage to the item being hit.
  • The claw of a hammer is commonly used to grasp unwanted nails and remove them from the driven object, and there is increased power due to the leverage occurring.
  • Titanium hammer heads have been proven to absorb most recoil from the force of the impact, with recoil being up to ten times greater in typical steel heads.
  • Hammers are often used to symbolise mining, industrial and manufacturing workplaces, and they were adapted as a close combat weapon, used in the late medieval times, although they were larger and heavier than the modern device.
  • The most common style is the claw hammer, that typically weighs between 455 to 680 grams (16 to 24 ounces).

 

Bibliography:
Different Types of Hammers, 2014, Diydata, http://www.diydata.com/tool/hammer/hammers.php
Hammer, 2014, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer

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Giant Crystal Cave

Giant Crystal Cave

Giants do not live among crystals in Giant Crystal Cave – the crystals are the giants.

  • Giant Crystal Cave is a cave located in the Naica Mine in Chihuahua’s Naica, in Mexico, in southern North America, at a depth of 300 metres (980 feet).
  • ‘Giant Crystal Cave’ is also known as ‘Cave of the Crystals’, ‘Cave of Crystals’ and ‘Cave of Giant Crystals’.
  • Giant Crystal Cave is the home to some of the largest natural crystals discovered on earth and the crystals are made of selenite, a type of gypsum.
  • The largest crystal of Giant Crystal Cave is said to reach a length of 12 metres (39 feet), a diameter of 4 metres (13 feet) and is believed to weigh approximately 50 tonnes (55 tons).
  • Giant Crystal Cave boasts very high temperatures, averaging 58°C (136°F) and has humidity above 90%, making the cave difficult and dangerous to explore.
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Part of Giant Crystal Cave
Image courtesy of Julie Rohloff/Flickr
  • Giant Crystal Cave is situated above a magma chamber, that emanates great heat, and due to the mineral rich water originally in the cave, the undisturbed environment and hydrothermal circulation, the huge crystals had the opportunity to form over thousands of years.
  • Giant Crystal Cave was first discovered in the year 2000 while drilling tunnels in the mine, although the area is to said to have been drained of water since 1975; and while it is possible that the cave may be closed in the future, doing so will allow water levels to rise and the crystals to recommence growing.
  • Giant Crystal Cave is generally only visited by scientists, such as the expedition in 2006 led by crystallographer Paolo Forti, of Italy’s University of Bologna, Europe, that required the invention of special suits.
  • There are possibly more chambers connected to Giant Crystal Cave, however access would require the destruction of numerous crystals.
  • Giant Crystal Cave is owned privately by Industrias Peñoles, a Mexican mining company that mines primarily zinc, silver and lead from the Naica Mine, and the site is not open to the public.
Bibliography:
Cave of the Crystals, 2014, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_of_the_Crystals
Mexico’s Cave of Giant Crystals, n.d, Crystalink, http://www.crystalinks.com/mexicocrystals.html
Naica Mine, 2014, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naica_Mine
Naica, 2014, Proyecto Naica, http://www.naica.com.mx/english/

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Giant Clam

Giant Clam

You may not be a giant when next to a giant clam.

  • Giant clams are very large bivalves, shells with two pieces that are hinged together, and are native to the Indian and Pacific oceans, in coral reefs.
  • The giant clam has the scientific name Tridacna gigas, and is a mollusc from the family Cardiidae, the family of cockles, and it is commonly believed to be the largest extant bivalve, and while it is the heaviest, longer specimens of Kuphus polythalamia have been found.
  • Giant clams typically range from 90 to 120 centimetres (35 to 47 inches) in length, and can weigh 100 to 200 kilograms (220 to 440 pounds), although they can grow larger.
  • The diet of a giant clam primarily consists of nutrients produced by algae that the clam plays host to and with which it lives in a photosymbiosis relationship, and it also consumes plankton and sometimes other plant and animal matter.
  • Giant clams possibly grow around 12 centimetres in length annually, until maximum length has been reached, and they have a lifespan spanning approximately 20 to 100 years in the wild.
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Giant Clam
Image courtesy of Malcolm Browne/Flickr
  • Once a giant clam has found a favourable location, it settles there and does not re-position itself ever again, however, they do have predators, that include eels; fish; starfish; and snails, that are smaller than the clam itself, and once attacked, they will be slowly eaten by their enemies.
  • Giant clams are vulnerably endangered due to coral reef habitat destruction as well as over-fishing partly due to the clam being considered as a delicacy.
  • Giant clams usually close in self defense, but quite slowly, and often not all the way, and while they have often been regarded as highly dangerous and fatal, this is considered a myth and no known fatalities have occurred.
  • Giant clams have a combination of colours that vary, and include yellow, red, orange, green, pink, blue and brown, and it is said that every clam is unique in its appearance.
  • Giant clams are said to be able to produce 500 million eggs at once, that are released in the ocean and once fertilised, they quickly hatch and produce a shell.
Bibliography:
Giant Clam, 2013, A-Z Animals, http://a-z-animals.com/animals/giant-clam/
Giant Clam, 2014, National Geographic, http://animals.nationalgeographic.com.au/animals/invertebrates/giant-clam/
Giant Clam, 2014, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_clam

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Croissant

Croissant

Do you eat croissants for breakfast?

  • Croissants are puffy bakery food items that are typically flaky and buttery in texture, that are usually tan or light brown in colour.
  • Croissants are said to have been derived from a yeast-dough pastry named ‘kipfel’, in Austria, Europe, that may have its origins as early as the 1200s, although it is possible that they did not exist until the 1600s.
  • Croissants are mainly made with butter and a bread like dough containing yeast, and can be filled and flavoured with numerous foods including chocolate, nut, ham, cheese, dried fruits and apple
  • Croissants are traditionally crescent in shape, but can be spherical or cylindrical, and the typical shape is said to have originated from the Austrian kipfel.
  • Croissants are popularly eaten during breakfast, commonly sold as a type of fast food, and are often sold frozen so that they can be thawed and heated at home.

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Croissants
Image courtesy of Zdenko Zivkovic/Flickr
  • There are many legends regarding the history of the croissant, and the most popular is that it originates in the late 1600s, when bakers created crescent shaped pastries based on the Turkish flag, due to the Turks having been defeated by their enemies.
  • The term ‘croissant’ was named after the French word for ‘crescent’, referring to the traditional shape.
  • While the origin of croissants is uncertain, they were probably introduced to France in the late 1830s, by officer August Zang from Austria, in a bakery that he owned and was located in France’s Paris, in Europe.
  • Croissants are typically made by folding butter into dough, rolling the dough into sheets, and then continuing the folding and rolling process known as ‘laminating’, before cutting and rolling into a crescent shape and baking in an oven.
  • Croissants have significant quantities of sodium, selenium, folate and thiamin and are also high in fat.
Bibliography:
Croissant, 2014, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croissant
Origins of the Croissant, 2009, The Hungarian Girl, http://thehungariangirl.com/2009/08/12/history-of-the-croissant/
Olver, L, FAQs: Bread, 2014, Food Timeline, http://www.foodtimeline.org/foodbreads.html#croissants

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Can Opener

Can Opener

How would you open a can, without a can opener?

    • Can openers are tools, typically used to open cans, usually in a culinary environments like the food industry and domestic situations.
    • ‘Can openers’ are also known as ‘tin openers’, and are often made of metal such as stainless steel, or plastic, although the cutter is generally metal.
    • While preserved food in cans dates back to the mid to late 1700s and the process became successful, patented, and popular in the early 1800s, can openers were not invented until approximately 50 years later, and were most likely not invented earlier due to the heavy thickness of the iron that the cans were made from.
    • Can openers replaced the common hammer and chisel method of opening a can, and were first invented around the 1850s with a leverage mechanism shaped like a claw.
    • Modern can openers typically involve a sharp metal rotating disc that cuts through cans when moved along the edge.

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  • William Lyman, an American inventor from Connecticut’s Meriden, in the United States, is said to have invented the first can opener with a rotating wheel, in 1870, and it is this basic principal which most modern designs use.
  • Early can openers were originally quite dangerous to use, and this problem was fixed by an improved cutting technique and design.
  • Electrically operated can openers were not popular when first invented in 1931, but they were redesigned in 1956 by at least two different companies of which only one became popular.
  • Can openers often use a scissor like mechanism with two handles that pivot and close two discs onto the can, one of which rolls around the can, and the other cuts, both of which move due to the user turning a protruding handle.
  • Can openers have become less essential due to many cans now having their own ring pull lid or pull open top, that easily opens the can without a special tool.
Bibliography:
Can Opener, 2014, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can_opener
The Can Opener Wasn’t Invented Until 48 Years After the Invention of the Can, 2012, Today I Found Out, http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2012/06/the-can-opener-wasnt-invented-until-48-years-after-the-invention-of-the-can/

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Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi

“Where there is love there is life.” – Mahatma Gandhi

  • Mahatma Gandhi was an Indian political activist, a firm believer of nonviolent resistance, and the primary influence of India’s independence and freedom from Britain in 1947.
  • The full name of Mahatma Gandhi is Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, born on the 2 October, 1869, in India’s Porbandar, in Asia, and he has also been known as ‘Bapu’, ‘Gandhiji’, ‘Father of the Nation’, and ‘Father of India’, and the title ‘Mahatma’, meaning ‘great soul’ or similar, was first used in relation to him in 1914.
  • Abiding by Indian tradition, Mahatma Gandhi married the similarly aged Kasturbai Makhanji at age thirteen years, in 1883 by an arranged marriage, and had five children, although only four boys survived, with the first child dying days after birth.
  • Mahatma Gandhi studied law in London, in Europe’s England in 1888, returning to India in 1891 after graduation, but then moved to South Africa to work for an Indian trader group in 1893 as a legal representative, where he remained until moving back to India in 1915.
  • While in South Africa, Mahatma Gandhi observed and experienced violent racism, and as a result rallied for the rights of Indians in the country, and when he returned home to India after more than 20 years, he began to campaign for his country’s independence.
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Mahatma Gandhi
Image courtesy of Nagarjun Kandukuru/Flickr
  • Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by bullet at 78 years of age, on 30 January, 1948, by Nathuram Godse, a representative of a disagreeing Hindu fundamentalist group, in the area of Birla House, New Delhi in India, which was later renamed Gandhi Smriti and was transformed into a museum.
  • While he studied many different religions, Mahatma Gandhi was mostly influenced by Hinduism and Jainism, and during his lifetime he wrote over 50,000 pages of literature, some of which was previously released, although the whole lot was published collectively by the government in India in the 1960s.
  • Despite being nominated five times, Mahatma Gandhi was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize during his lifetime, although the story of his life was adapted into the Academy Award winning film Gandhi (1982), starring Ben Kingsley as the main character.
  • Since 2007, the 2nd October has been celebrated each year as the International Day of Non-Violence, in honour of Mahatma Gandhi, which is the Indian’s birthday, and also a public holiday in India, known as ‘Gandhi Jayanti’.
  • Mahatma Gandhi was the subject of at least five failed assassinations, one of which is said to have been the derailing of a train a year and a half before his death.
Bibliography:
Mahatma Gandhi, 2014, History, http://www.history.co.uk/biographies/mahatma-gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi, 2014, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi

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